For the most part, we did not find evidence for genetic nurture or associations between polygenic loading for externalizing or parenting in our participants of African ancestry. It is important to note that these null effects are most likely attributable to the limited predictive power of polygenic scores derived from European ancestry individuals in samples of non-European ancestry individuals that arises due to different LD patterns and/or possible different causal effects (Martin et al., 2019). A challenge with incorporating genetic risk scores into developmental and biomedical studies is that creating polygenic scores in diverse populations is not straightforward (Wang, Tsuo, Kanai, Neale, & Martin, 2022). Populations of non-European ancestry, particularly those of African ancestry, have been historically excluded from GWAS across fields (Popejoy & Fullerton, 2016), and this lack of diversity in genomic research limits our ability to create valid polygenic scores in follow-up studies with diverse samples. Rather than limiting our analyses to focus on participants of European ancestry, we used GWAS results from European ancestry discovery samples to create polygenic scores for the African ancestry sample in our
