Gender is another social variable that might affect the relationship between discrimination and health. Consistent with the view that black men are more likely to be targets of discrimination than black women because of gendered stereotypes that view them as more threatening, men tend to report higher levels of discrimination than women (Carter 2007). Gender differences in the level and consequences of a stressor can be evident in opposite directions. For example, men report higher levels of exposure to traumas but PTSD is more prevalent in women (Stam 2007). One recent study found that gender moderated the association between discrimination and anxiety but not depression (Banks and Dracup 2006) while another found that the association between discrimination and physical and mental health was stronger for women than for men (Borrell et al. 2006). It is also important to explore the intersections of race, class and gender. One study found that race-related stress had larger negative effects on middle class than working class men, suggesting that the additional resources of the middle class did not protect them from the negative effects of stressors (Pieterse and Carter 2007).
