Generally, single-compartment models assume one volume for alcohol distribution and elimination, such as the Widmark and Wilkinson models (156, 159). Dual-compartment models commonly include central and peripheral distribution volumes with one or more elimination pathways; for example, the model used by Norberg compares the distribution space of alcohol and water (98). Multi-compartment models have also been used to describe distribution spaces of interest, such as specific organs or absorption kinetics. Examples include Wedel et al.’s exploration of factors including sex, alcohol dose, exercise, and food (160) and more recent efforts by Zekan et al. that expand the Norberg model (161). Other notable work includes Podéus’s gastric emptying models and the interaction between alcohol, food, and alcohol metabolites, along with studies by Sadighi, Leggio, and Akhlagi focusing on modeling multiple organ tissue concentrations under fasted and fed conditions (162). Pharmacokinetic modeling, in general, is governed by both the nature of the drug itself and its interactions with human anatomy and physiology. The key challenge lies in selecting a model appropriate for the task at hand while balancing complexity and the risk of overfitting the data (158).
