More direct tests of a developmental relationship between ODD and CD have also provided somewhat mixed support. In clinically referred boys followed from ages 7-12 years to age 18, ODD was predictive of later CD, with no reciprocal (i.e. CD→ODD) relationship (Burke, Loeber, Lahey, & Rathouz, 2005). In a mixed-sex general population sample, however, dimensional measures of oppositionality at ages 4-7 years showed negligible prediction to dimensional measures of later conduct problems (at ages 8-13 years) once initial levels of conduct problems were controlled (Lahey et al., 2009). The measures of oppositionality and conduct problems in this study did not cover the full DSM-IV symptom lists, however. In particular, conduct problems were measured using only 7 items, including indicators of trouble getting along with teachers and disobedience at home and school, which overlap with the construct of oppositionality.
