In relation to problems experienced by African Americans, based on our theory, we speculate that at least some of the problems experienced by African Americans are more social in nature (e.g., disapproval from peer and family for drinking alcohol and/or becoming intoxicated), and may be less likely due to very heavy levels of consumption or physiological problems (i.e., increased tolerance and withdrawal symptoms) from alcohol use. For example, a study by Keyes and colleagues (2009) found that when weekly at-risk drinking was included as a necessary condition for an alcohol dependence diagnosis, risk for dependence was significantly reduced for African Americans, controlling for socioeconomic status. Moreover, a study by Caetano, Clark, and Greenfield (1998) reported that among treatment seeking individuals, African American men reported the lowest prevalence of withdrawal symptoms, preceded by European American and Hispanic men. Thus, there appears to be some evidence that the problems experienced by African American drinkers may be less physiological and more social in nature. There is a need for further research to examine the nature of the alcohol dependence symptoms endorsed by African
