The final step in the developmental model posits prediction from CD to ASPD. Here, current evidence is more consistent: ASPD is typically an outcome of CD rather than ODD (Burke, in press), though one study has reported an independent relationship between ODD and ASPD (Langbehn, Cadoret, Yates, Troughton, & Stewart, 1998). Looking beyond strictly ‘antisocial’ outcomes, however, the picture is more complex. Follow-up of the GSMS sample in early adulthood (Copeland et al., 2009) showed that ODD in adolescence was independently associated with increased risks of anxiety and depression in early adult life. CD showed no similar predictions to emotional disorders. Differential prediction to emotional and behavioral outcomes has also been noted in a clinical sample of boys (Burke et al., 2005). This echoes the more diffuse patterns of comorbidity in ODD than CD reported in childhood and adolescent samples (Simonoff et al., 1997).
