Earlier research had also indicated an association between discrimination and cigarette smoking and alcohol use. Recent studies reveal that perceived discrimination is associated with an increased risk of multiple substances, such as marijuana, inhalants and cocaine among middle school students (Choi et al. 2006). In the CARDIA study of young adults, discrimination was associated with marijuana, tobacco and alcohol use, but not cocaine use, among black but not white participants (Borrell et al. 2006). Similarly, both chronic and acute racial discrimination were associated with prescription drug use, illicit drug use and alcohol dependence among Filipino adults in San Francisco and Honolulu (Gee et al. 2007a). Other U.S. studies continue to find positive associations between discrimination and tobacco (Landrine et al. 2006; Krieger et al. 2005; Bennett et al. 2005) and alcohol use (Terrell et al. 2006). Studies from South Africa also find that perceived discrimination is positively associated with cigarette smoking (Brook et al. 2006b) and HIV risk behavior (Kalichman et al. 2006).
