our nosological system. Third, reports of some traits (e.g., N/NE and harm avoidance) are influenced by clinical state, whereas other traits (e.g., E/PE) appear to be independent of mood state. However, state effects cannot fully account for the associations between personality and depression. Fourth, shared etiological factors (e.g., genes) account for a portion of the association between N/NE and depression. Fifth, depressive personality and some traits, particularly N/NE, predict the subsequent onset of depressive disorders. However, it is unclear at this point whether they are best conceptualized as precursors or predispositions, as it is difficult to tease these models apart, and there is evidence supporting both accounts. In either case, there is growing evidence that temperamental risk factors are evident at an early age, suggesting a promising approach to identifying young children at risk for depression. Sixth, there is evidence suggesting that other traits, such as low E/PE and low conscientiousness/effortful control, may moderate the relationship between N/NE and depression. Seventh, it appears unlikely that depressive episodes produce enduring changes in most personality traits. Finally, personality traits predict, and may in fact influence, the course and treatment response of depression.
