feasibility concerns (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01631630). Several other clinical studies are underway to determine the efficacy of neuroimmune-related compounds in AUD. For example, a study expected to end in 2023 is investigating minocycline’s ability to reduce neuroinflammation, alcohol cue reactivity, and alcohol use (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03244592). Another study examining the effects of minocycline on alcohol responses, including subjective, motor, and cognitive effects as well as plasma cytokine levels, has an estimated completion date in 2018 (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02187211). A phase II clinical trial testing the effects of the PDE-4 inhibitor apremilast on alcohol craving is currently recruiting participants, with an expected completion date in 2019 (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03175549). A systematic review of randomized controlled trials using the anti-inflammatory drug N-acetylcysteine suggests that it may reduce craving in SUDs (Duailibi et al., 2017). Using N-acetylcysteine to augment naltrexone therapy to treat alcohol dependence is currently being explored in a randomized controlled trial (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01214083). Additional studies on the usefulness of combining neuroimmune therapies with approved drugs for AUD may be warranted, considering the evidence from preclinical studies (Stopponi et al., 2013). Table 7 outlines clinical studies investigating the use of neuroimmune pharmacotherapies for treating AUDs and other substance use disorders.
