Individual items used as indicators of observed parenting constructs are listed in Table 2. Noninvariance was indicated for prosocial rewards and problem solving (see Table 3). In the case of prosocial rewards, the loading for ‘Failed to respond to prosocial behavior or attitude’ was negative and significant in both groups, but stronger for African American families. In the case of problem solving, the intercept (mean level holding the level of the latent variable constant) for “Caregiver and child enjoyed each other’s company” was significantly higher for European American than African American families. Partially invariant models in which this single parameter was allowed to vary were estimated and found to fit better than fully invariant models but to fit equally well as fully noninvariant models. We consider these measurement models with a single differing parameter to be sufficiently equivalent across groups to compare means.
