1990; Adinoff et al., 1991; Costa et al., 1996; Lovallo et al., 2000; Willenbring et al., 1984). Dysregulation of HPA axis function that extends into protracted phases of withdrawal is thought to contribute to dysphoria and negative affect associated with alcohol dependence (Heilig et al., 2010; Koob and Kreek, 2007; Koob, 2013). Further, persistent changes in HPA neuroendocrine function resulting from chronic alcohol exposure and withdrawal may activate brain stress systems outside the HPA axis (Koob, 2013; Vendruscolo et al., 2012).
