Substance dependence is a serious health problem that is complicated by a greater risk of experiencing violence and developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In the National Comorbidity Study, 7.8% of the general population reported lifetime PTSD (Kessler et al., 1995) while in contrast, studies with drug users described much higher rates of trauma and PTSD (Back et al., 2000; Johnson et al., 2003; Johnson et al., 2006; Mills et al., 2005; Mills et al., 2006; Najavits et al., 2003; Reynolds et al., 2005). For example, Johnson et al. (2006) reported in a sample of drug users that 42% experienced a traumatic event and of those who experienced trauma, 44% met criteria for PTSD. Likewise, Mills et al. (2005) studied distressing events in heroin dependent individuals and found that 92% were exposed to trauma and among those, 45% met PTSD criteria.
