Neighborhood disadvantage, a confounder, was based on proportions of adults without a high school diploma, males unemployed or not in labor force, people with incomes below the poverty limit or<50% of US median, and households without access to a car (Karriker-Jaffe et al., 2012). Neighborhood demographic data came from the 2000 US Decennial Census (for the 2000 and 2005 surveys) and the 2005–2009 American Community Survey (for the 2010 survey). An average neighborhood disadvantage score was calculated (M = 19.9%, SD = 10.8; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.89).
