Considerable data from genetic epidemiologic studies have shown moderate-to-high heritability for clinical aspects of conduct problems, including aggression52 and callous–unemotional traits.53 Other work in this area has suggested that performance on neurocognitive tasks related to empathy and decision making is also heritable.54 These findings point to an avenue for future research that integrates a neuroscientific systems approach with genetic studies to elucidate how genetic factors shape clinical profiles through effects on neurocognitive function. However, because research in this area is only beginning, a consensus has not emerged on the most productive directions for investigation. Some work has linked specific genetic polymorphisms with individual differences in the circuitry mediating empathy and threat sensitivity.55 However, much of this research has relied on candidate-gene approaches in relatively small samples, raising concern about type I errors.55
