Available work studying the influence of parenting on antisocial behavior in adolescence and emerging adulthood has provided strong empirical support for this model of G × E (Caspi et al. 2002; Foley et al. 2004; Spatz Widom & Brzustowicz, 2006; Feinberg et al. 2007; Button et al. 2008; Hicks et al. 2009; Beach et al. 2010; Li & Lee, 2010; Aslund et al. 2011). Feinberg et al. (2007), for example, found that genetic influences on adolescent behavior problems were potentiated in the face of parental negativity. Hicks et al. (2009) found nearly identical results in their analysis of more than 1300 pairs of 17-year-old twins. Such results strongly imply that genetic contributions to adolescent externalizing are accentuated in the presence of poor-quality parenting (i.e. the diathesis–stress form of G × E).
