Finally, our study relies on a cross-sectional design, which does not allow for the identification of causal effects. While our models account for more potential confounding variables than earlier observational studies in this area of research, we cannot rule out the possibility of reverse-causality or a confounding influence of other factors that are not included in our models. Further investigation of the causal nature of the relationships between alcohol intake and brain anatomy (e.g., via longitudinal studies or natural experiments) would be of interest.
