lower in the lactating group when compared to the two control groups, which did not differ from each other (Figure 9). That reproductive state of lactation did not affect the elimination of alcohol suggests that the act of lactating reduces alcohol bioavailability by increasing FPM of alcohol. To determine whether breast stimulation, which is necessary for sustaining lactation and impacts vagal activity and the release of hormones that affect gastric motility (e.g., oxytocin, cholecystokinin, gastrin) (232), we compared BAC in lactating women who were randomized to breast pump either before or after drinking a moderate dose of alcohol; both groups were tested both fasted and fed conditions (230). Women who breast pumped before drinking exhibited a reduced bioavailability of ethanol compared to those who pumped after drinking, particularly when assessed in the fed condition. Interestingly, women who pumped after drinking eliminated alcohol faster. Overall, these findings suggest that food intake and breast stimulation in lactating women have additive effects that enhance alcohol FPM.
