Disorders and problems related to substance use are more prevalent among people with low education (Jacobi et al., 2004; Kessler et al., 2005; Latvala et al., 2009; Leach and Butterworth, 2012). However, the association between educational level and substance use is not straightforward. For example, in many countries abstaining from alcohol is less common and non-problematic alcohol use more frequent among people with high education (Casswell et al., 2003; Helakorpi et al., 2012; Helasoja et al., 2007; Patrick et al., 2012). Smoking behaviors currently exhibit a strong socioeconomic gradient in many countries such that those with higher education are much less likely to smoke (Helakorpi et al., 2008; Hiscock et al., 2012).
