Recently, greater attention has focused on how stress associated with chronic alcohol exposure and withdrawal experience influences motivation to self-administer alcohol. Studies in mice and rats have demonstrated dependence-related excessive levels of alcohol consumption under a number of conditions (Becker, 2013; Becker and Ron, 2014; Vendruscolo and Roberts, 2014). These models not only demonstrate escalation of drinking, but perturbations in neuroendocrine and brain stress systems induced by chronic alcohol exposure and withdrawal have been linked to enhanced behavioral responsiveness to stress. For example, rats exhibit increased stress responsiveness following withdrawal from chronic alcohol exposure, as measured by several experimental procedures that provoke behavioral measures of stress/anxiety, such as reduced social interaction in a novel environment, reduced exploration in threatening circumstances (e.g., open, brightly illuminated spaces), and greater electroshock-induced suppression of ongoing behavior (Breese et al., 2005; Gehlert et al., 2007; Sommer et al., 2008). In a series of studies involving a mouse model of alcohol dependence and relapse drinking, repeated brief exposure to forced swim stress prior to alcohol drinking sessions significantly increased drinking in alcohol dependent mice, but did
