Interviewers rated the amount of parental conflict and violence during early childhood on a 5-point scale (1=“rarely even shout” to 5=“physical, more than once”). For both cohorts, interviewers rated the child’s amount of exposure to violence on a 5-point scale (1=“none” to 5=“physical, more than once”). For cohort 2 only, interviewers rated the child’s level of exposure to violence inside and outside the home separately. For cohort 2, the level of exposure was averaged across the ratings from within and outside the home. Exposure to violence was averaged across the two early-childhood time frames. Interviewers also rated the parents’ use of harsh, punitive, and restrictive discipline on a 5-point scale (1=“non-restrictive, mostly positive guidance” to 5=“severe, strict, often physical discipline”). Harsh discipline was averaged across the two early-childhood time frames.
