Standardized stigma-related measures were used in 11 (85%) studies; however, most underwent modification to suit the needs of the specific study. The interventions of two studies, which included a qualitative study, were not evaluated using established measures of stigma. The included studies assessed stigma outcomes using a wide variety of instruments (Table 1). For example, two self-stigma studies used standardized measures to assess internalized stigma [62], shame [62], perceived stigma [62], stigma-related rejection [62], self-image [67], social distance [67] and attitudes towards society [67]. The nine studies that evaluated public and structural stigma interventions using established instruments assessed social distance [58], level of comfort [60,66,68] and stigmatizing beliefs and attitudes towards substance use disorders [60,61,63–66,68,70]. Internal reliability was reported for 14 (64%) of the stigma-related outcomes measures included in the studies.
