Because primates are our closest evolutionary ancestors, primate models of FASD are considered a “gold standard.” Developmental gestation and length resembles human pregnancy, and more importantly, primates can be used to study more sophisticated behaviors than are possible in rodents or other animal models (201). However, primate research is time consuming (pregnancy length is similar to human beings), expensive, and ethical approval can be difficult to obtain. Because of this, there are very few studies of PNEE that have been conducted in primates and those studies that have been done usually have a very small sample size and there are wide variations in ethanol dosage and administration. For example, one of the first studies conducted by Elton and Wilson (202) allowed four pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) to consume an orange-flavored ethanol solution prior to conception and throughout pregnancy. While three of the monkeys drank very little of the ethanol and had apparently normal infants, one of the monkeys consumed large amounts of the ethanol throughout her pregnancy and her infant was noted to be hyperactive and tremulous (202). The majority
