Exposure to physical abuse prior to age 18 was associated with increased odds of AUD, CUD, and TUD; the magnitude of these associations did not appear to differ significantly by race/ ethnicity. This supports previous studies that show physical abuse experienced early in life is a significant risk factor for alcohol, cannabis, and tobacco use problems (Fuller-Thomson et al. 2016). In addition, variation by gender was observed for AUD and TUD, such that associations of CPA with AUD and TUD were generally greater among males than females. We note that these effects are modest (1.4 for males v. 1.3 for females), and hypothesize that greater ORs may be due to the higher rates of SUDs and greater frequency of physical abuse endorsed by males compared with females in this sample. Previous studies examining gender differences in the relations of childhood IPV and SUD have produced mixed results (Kristman-Valente & Wells, 2013), with the largest and most comparable study (Fuller-Thomson et al. 2016) indicating no significant gender differences in the associations of CPA with alcohol or drug dependence. The authors offered
