Non-coding RNAs represent one epigenetic pathway through which both PAE and developmental stress have been shown to affect protein synthesis and, ultimately, CNS function. Disruption of noncoding RNAs, such as miRNAs, can cause a wide range of cellular or DNA damage, contributing to long-term deficits (Figure 1). miRNAs affect the production of protein products through translational repression or degradation of the mRNA. In vivo and in vitro models of FASD have identified numerous miRNAs that are impacted by developmental alcohol exposure, including miR-9, miR-20a, miR-21, miR-30, miR-103, miR-151, miR-153, miR-335, and miR-140-3p (Balaraman et al., 2014; Balaraman et al., 2012; Guo et al., 2012; Ignacio et al., 2014; Pappalardo-Carter et al., 2013; Pietrzykowski et al., 2008; Sathyan et al., 2007; Soares et al., 2012; Tal et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2009). In a study that examined the effects of prenatal stress on miRNA expression, dams were administered daily restraint stress and forced swimming from days 12–18 of gestation (Zucchi et al., 2013). This stressor disrupted maternal behavior, as reduced tail chasing behavior was exhibited by dams exposed to stress.
