cope with later stress (e.g., by altering genetically influenced components of the HPA axis) and cause changes in the expression of genes that modulate the pleasurable effects of alcohol (Clarke et al., 2008; Enoch, 2011; Spanagel, 2009), it is possible that alcohol-related GxE at later ages are mediated through genetically influenced vulnerability to the pathogenic effects of early life stressors (i.e., GxExE). Detailed longitudinal analyses of clearly operationalized distal and proximal environmental risk factors associated with both the onset and course of drinking and AUDs are needed for a more thorough understanding of cumulative and persistant nature of alcohol-related GxE across development (Caspi et al., 2010; Sher et al., 2010).
