The literature surrounding specific gene–environment interactions in the area of alcohol use has developed largely independently of the latent gene–environment interaction literature reviewed above. Much of the literature examining measured gene–environment interactions with alcohol use outcomes has focused on stress, which was measured in a variety of ways, a moderator of specific genetic influences. The relationship between stress and alcohol use is complex, with human experimental studies, animal studies, and epidemiological studies all yielding equivocal evidence as to whether stress induces alcohol use (Schwandt et al. 2010; Veenstra et al. 2006). However, the gene–environment interaction literature presupposes that one of the reasons for these disparate findings may be that stress is more likely to induce alcohol use and problems in people who are genetically vulnerable, similar to the literature surrounding the experience of stressful life events and the onset of depression (Kendler et al. 1995).
