Research on gender norms and social control processes indicates that disinhibition pathways in alcohol misuse may operate differently among men and women. Studies have reported that the American public perceives harsher social sanctions in response to alcohol and drug use by women and girls relative to men and boys (for reviews, see Nolen-Hoeksema and Hilt 2006; Schmidt et al. 1990). This stigma may derive from the conflict between alcohol misuse and feminine social norms and obligations relating to virtue, emotionality, and nurturing and caregiving for children and families (Bancroft 2009; Schulte et al. 2009). In contrast, alcohol consumption and its effects are consistent with aspects of the masculine gender role, including aggression and instrumentality. In fact, women who more strongly adhere to feminine gender norms have been shown to report lower frequency and quantity of alcohol use, while endorsement of masculine norms was associated with increased drinking in men (Horwitz and White 1987; Huselid and Cooper 1992; Landrine et al. 1988; Ricciardelli et al. 2001). Moreover, both women and men perceive that the ‘‘typical woman’’ consumes less alcohol than the
