The Center for Epidemiological Studies on Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) was used to assess depression in the primary caregivers. The CES-D, which consists of 20 items, is a well-established and widely used measure of depressive symptoms. This measure uses a 0 (less than 1 day) to 3 (5–7 days) Likert scale to assess the frequency of experiencing depressive symptoms during the past week. An overall depressive symptoms score was created using the sum of the items. At the age 2 assessment, internal consistency in this sample was .76.
