We have begun linking these aspects of the core features (negative emotionality, incentive salience, and executive function) to response to CBT. For example, in terms of executive functioning, we have included relevant neuropsychological tasks from CANTAB (Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Test Battery) (Robbins et al., 1994) in our studies. In our most recent study of the cognitive enhancer galantamine and CBT4CBT in cocaine-dependent methadone-maintained individuals (Carroll, DeVito, Shi, Nich, & Sofuoglu, in press), we found that while these indicators of executive function demonstrated little change during treatment, they were nevertheless consistently associated with treatment outcome. Baseline measures were significantly positively correlated with percentage of urine specimens submitted that were negative for all drugs, including sustained attention (CANTAB RVP A’), visual memory (CANTAB PRM% correct), Digits Backward, and a composite of all cognitive measures. This is consistent with numerous findings linking impaired cognitive function and poorer outcome in CBT (Aharonovich, Nunes, & Hasin, 2003; Bates, Buckman, & Nguyen, 2013; Litt, Kadden, Cooney, & Kabela, 2003; Sofuoglu, DeVito, Waters, & Carroll, 2013). Given that (1) cognitive impairment may not be directly improved by
