As discussed with alcohol drinking, administering anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibudilast, PDE-4 inhibitors, PPAR agonists, and minocycline reduces consumption of other drugs of abuse and drug-seeking in animal models (de Guglielmo et al., 2017; Hutchinson et al., 2008a; Miller et al., 2016; Northcutt et al., 2015; Poland et al., 2016; Zhong et al., 2012). Clinical evidence lends support for the translational potential of some of these compounds to treat symptoms of substance abuse. For example, ibudilast reduces withdrawal symptoms in opioid-dependent humans (Cooper et al., 2016) and reduces the subjective and reinforcing effects of oxycodone in a small sample of non-treatment seeking opioid users (Metz et al., 2017). Another study shows ibudilast enhances opioid-induced analgesia in dependent individuals, but does not alter the subjective drug effects associated with abuse liability (Cooper et al., 2017). However, in non-treatment seeking methamphetamine-dependent individuals, ibudilast reduces the subjective effects (Worley et al., 2016). A phase II clinical trial of ibudilast for outpatients seeking treatment for methamphetamine dependence is underway [ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01860807]. Another phase II trial of the effects of ibudilast on neuroinflammation in
