Because DSM-5 combines dependence and abuse, studies addressed whether criteria for nicotine use disorder could be aligned with other substance use disorders (45, 71, 181), potentially also addressing the concerns about DSM-IV-defined nicotine dependence. Smoking researchers widely regard craving as an indicator of dependence and relapse (164, 173–175). Increasing disapproval of smoking (176) and wider smoking restrictions (177) suggest improved face validity of continued smoking despite interpersonal problems and smoking-related failure to fulfill responsibilities as tobacco use disorder criteria. Smoking is highly associated with fire-related and other mortality (e.g., unintentional injuries and vehicle crashes) (173, 178–180), suggesting the applicability of hazardous use as a criterion for tobacco use disorders, parallel with hazardous use of other substances.
