Participants were male youth from two cohorts of the Pittsburgh Youth Study (PYS), a prospective longitudinal study of an urban sample, which was approved by the University of Pittsburgh Institutional Review Board. In 1987–88, random samples of first (the youngest cohort) and seventh (the oldest cohort) grade boys from the Pittsburgh, PA, public schools were screened for antisocial behavior using multi-informant reports (parent, teacher, child). Boys who ranked in the top 30% were selected as well as a relatively equal number of boys from the remainder, which resulted in 506 boys in the oldest and 503 in the youngest cohort. Caretakers gave written consent and boys gave oral assent through age 17. After that, youth gave written consent. The boys were followed for 14 years until the youngest cohort was approximately age 19/20 and the oldest approximately age 24/25. Retention averaged over 90%. The youngest cohort was re-interviewed at approximate age 24/25, with an 84.5% follow-up rate. The sample is 55% Black, with the remainder almost all White (less than 4% is Hispanic, Asian, other or mixed). Approximately 36% of
