a lower risk of all-cause mortality than abstainers, while heavy drinkers and those with alcohol use disorder (AUD) are at the highest risk (O'Keefe, Bybee et al. 2007). Moreover, moderate alcohol consumption is associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (Klatsky 1999, Holmes, Dale et al. 2014) and seems to exert an immune stimulatory effect, whereas heavy or binge drinking results in an increased risk of cirrhosis of the liver, hypertension, stroke, type 2 diabetes, cancer, and impaired immune function (Ahmed 1995, Szabo 1998). The primary objective of this review is to examine the effects of moderate versus excessive alcohol intake on the immune system in human and animal model studies.
