The literature reviewed herein indicates a number of possibilities for future research with the ultimate goal of translating basic findings into improved treatments for alcoholism. Specifically, as suggested by Insel and Quirion (2005), increased knowledge about the pathophysiology of mental disorders should lead to treatments that are more specific, effective, and accessible. Recent efforts to identify responders to naltrexone as a treatment for alcoholism (e.g., Anton et al., 2008; Ray & Hutchison, 2007) represent initial attempts to develop treatments that are more specific, and as a result, also more efficacious. These efforts are also consistent with the personalized treatment approaches pursued in various fields of medicine. Further characterizing the role of environmental factors (i.e., “E”) and their singular and interactive effects on endophenotypes and disease phenotypes represents a necessary step to more fully understand and treat disorders of complex genetics. Translating some of the promising endophenotypes for alcoholism, such as subjective response to alcohol, into constructs that are measurable outside of the laboratory may help scientists capture the full picture. For example, using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) technology is a
