Research has shown that age and educational levels, regardless of race/ethnicity background, determine participation, with older or less educated individuals less willing to participate in genetic research, (Wang et al., 2001; Audrain et al., 2002; Moorman et al., 2004; Bogner et al., 2004). Still, other studies have shown that the shared experiences of historical and institutional racism among Blacks contribute to stigma and mistrust independent of education or socioeconomic status (Furr, 2002; Laskey et al., 2003; McQuillan et al., 2003).
