For a variety of complex reasons, a larger proportion of Black than White families live below the poverty line [12] and in single-parent households [13] and, reflecting historic limitations on educational opportunities, educational attainment is lower on average in Black vs. White adults [14]. Each of these indicators of low SES – low household income, single-parent-headed household, and low educational attainment - is associated with elevated risk for experiencing assaultive trauma [15,16]. Relatedly, Black families are more likely than White families to reside in disadvantaged urban neighborhoods [17], where the risk for experiencing assaultive trauma is greater than in more advantaged neighborhoods [11, 15,18]. Notably, high levels of community cohesion have been found to buffer against risk for child maltreatment in low income neighborhoods [19,20]; thus, understanding neighborhood level influences on risk for trauma exposure requires consideration of neighborhood connectedness as well.
