Living in a single-parent-headed household is associated with elevated likelihood of early alcohol use initiation [21–23]. By contrast, other indicators of low SES have been linked to lower likelihood of adolescent alcohol use. For example, in Blum et al.’s study based on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health [21], higher family income levels were associated with greater frequency of alcohol use among 9th to 12th graders. Neighborhood factors have received less attention in the alcohol literature, but consistent with Blum et al.’s finding, Ennett and colleagues [24] reported that neighborhood attachment, which is generally higher in advantaged neighborhoods [25], was associated with higher prevalence of alcohol use among 5th and 6th graders. Given the overrepresentation of Black families in low-income communities, the reduced risk for early drinking associated with some indicators of low SES and neighborhood disadvantage may simply reflect the lower prevalence of alcohol use in Black vs. White youth. That is, in studies documenting racial differences in alcohol use, race may be at least in part a proxy for SES. Similarly, elevated prevalence of trauma
