Parental AUD was a lifetime measure based on parents’ self-report from direct diagnostic SSAGA interviews when available (65.3% of fathers and 90.5% of mothers). For parents who were not interviewed, at least 2 positive family history reports, based on the Family History Assessment Module (37), were used to code parents as affected (5.1% of fathers and 0.3% of mothers). If fewer than 2 family history reports were available, parents were coded as “possible AUD” if there was just 1 positive family history report (5.9% of fathers and 0.9% of mothers) or if offspring reported that the parent was a heavy drinker or recovering alcoholic in the Important People and Activities interview (38) (2.3% of fathers and 1.1% of mothers). The combined AUD status of both parents was represented with dummy variables coded 0/1 for father only AUD, mother only AUD, both parents AUD, and 1 parent negative and other parent possible AUD. (see Supplemental Table 1 for details on parental AUD coding). Parental separation was represented by a dummy variable coded 1 for offspring who reported they did not live with both biological parents most of the time between ages 12 and 17 years, and 0 for all others.
