Our contention is that the field of the neurobiology of addiction has excellent and validated animal models and well developed clinical models that, combined with the neurocircuitry analysis herein, will provide a unique approach to medication development that emphasises excessive incentive salience, the loss of brain reward function, and the gain of stress function that drive negative reinforcement (ie, the dark side of addiction) and the dysregulation of executive function, all of which are key components that drive compulsive drug seeking.13,185 Advances in diagnosis that reflect such an endophenotype or research domain criterion approach will synergistically combine with advances in neurobiology to promote novel pharmacotherapeutic, brain stimulation (ie, transcranial magnetic stimulation and direct electrical stimulation), and behavioural treatments.186
