The three stages of the addiction cycle are pervasive and form common domains in non-drug addictions, also known as process addictions,179 such as pathological gambling, binge-eating disorder, compulsive buying, and internet addiction disorder.180 Non-drug addictions elaborate self-regulation failures similarly to drug addictions, with transitions from impulsivity to compulsivity and a chronic relapsing trajectory. Similar brain mechanisms, particularly with regard to reward deficits, stress sensitisation, and impaired inhibitory control, have been observed in behavioural or process addictions, as well as decreases in striatal dopamine D2 receptors associated with reduced activity in prefrontal cortices,181 deficits in the Go craving system and Stop inhibition systems,182,183 and dysregulation of the stress axis.184
