Studies of ASPD prediction in the general population have been rare [17, 18]. Typically, clinical or prison-based samples are employed to investigate ASPD [19, 20], and because ASPD occurs more frequently in males [1, 2], these samples often include only males [21–23]. Additionally, because ASPD diagnostics are difficult to perform on epidemiological samples, the outcome utilized by many prediction studies is antisocial behavior [7, 9, 10], a measure that is non-diagnostic and more broad than ASPD, but more feasible to capture.
