Drinking behaviors develop within a complex matrix of social, behavioral, epigenetic, and genetic influences. Contemporary GxE studies have moved alcohol research beyond a focus on direct genetic and environmental effects to address variability in drinking among individuals with the same genetic or environmental risk factors. Since 2005, a rapidly expanding literature has tested whether socio-cultural context and environmental adversity moderate genetic risk for drinking behaviors. However, at present, our understanding of the specific mechanisms by which genetic and environmental moderators promote risk and resilience in development and course of drinking behaviors remains limited. There are many issues regarding the development of drinking behaviors and AUDs – they are heterogeneous between persons and over time, and there are important clinical features such as age at drinking onset, co-occurring psychopathology, and use of other substances that are related to symptom course, but have rarely been examined within a GxE framework. Perhaps this is because statistical power is challenged in typical circumstances, and power may be untenable if these complexities are modeled. Further, it is often unclear how to conceptualize such features –
