(Raine, 2018; Tully et al., 2021). If the clinical course differs by sex or race, then knowing those differences may also help to refine and guide diagnosis and treatment strategies that could lead to early interventions (see Brazil et al., 2018; Raine et al., 2021). However, if some symptoms are more likely to be diagnosed in some racial groups because of cultural “bias”, then “labeling” individuals with a diagnosis of disease may over-estimate disease prevalence and lead to stigmatization of individuals, racial groups, and communities (see Garb, 2021).
