Knowing whether the clinical course of antisocial behaviors may differ depending on sex and race is important for several reasons. First, antisocial behaviors in women are becoming more widely recognized and female prisoners are one of the fastest growing segments of the criminal justice system world-wide. While the number of males incarcerated has increased by around 20%, women and girls in prison has increased by 50% since 2000 (Javdani et al., 2011; Walmsley, 2017). Second, despite this change few quantitative data are available about the differences between males and females, or across racial/ethnic groups in the expression of the antisocial behaviors that lead to the diagnosis of either AABS or ASPD in population based samples. Third, these findings might not support the suggestion by some authors that antisocial personality syndromes may be neuro-developmental disorders with a sexually dimorphic behavioral expression (Raine, 2018; Tully et al., 2021). If the clinical course differs by sex or race, then knowing those differences may also help to refine and guide diagnosis and treatment strategies that could lead to early interventions (see Brazil et al.,
