There is accumulating evidence that variation in some genes may only increase the risk of the development of AUDs and DD in individuals who have experienced significant stress, perhaps particularly in childhood [7]. However, only a half or less of children exposed to severe maltreatment have developed psychopathology, including AUDs and DD, by early-adulthood [8]. This risk–resilience balance for psychopathology may be in part a result of the interaction between genetic risk and environmental stressors (G×E), and this topic is the focus of this review.
