A subset of COGA Prospective Study offspring participants who were between ages 12 and 17 completed the Parental Bonding Instrument (Parker et al., 1979) at their baseline assessment. Adolescents responded to 12 statements about the degree of care, support, and communication with their mother and father figures during the past 6 months. Sample items included “spoke to me in a warm and friendly voice” and “was affectionate and loving to me”. Responses were made on a 4-point scale ranging from “usually or always” to “rarely or never”. Scores were summed across items and higher scores (ranged from 12 to 48) indicated higher levels of paternal or maternal bonding. This instrument was not administered across all COGA sites; thus only 650 adolescents reported on maternal bonding and 626 adolescents reported on paternal bonding. Some adolescents reported parental bonding of non-biological mothers (n = 31, 4.8%) and fathers (n = 127; 20.3%) because they did not live with their biological mother/father at the time of assessment. Because we considered parental genetics in the present study, we coded those responses as missing and
