Expression of genes involved in HMGB1 (high-mobility group box 1) signaling was also altered in both regions (Table 4). HMGB1 is a PKR-dependent, DNA-binding protein and cytokine that binds to toll-like receptors (TLRs) having pro-inflammatory properties (Kang and Tang, 2012; Yang et al., 2010). Increased activity in this signaling pathway (i.e., PKR-HMGB1-TLR) may be a response to chronic high brain levels of ethanol produced by adolescent binge-like drinking with an expected influence on neuronal function, as similarly reported by Vetreno and Crews (2012; also see Crews et al., 2013).
