At the same time, gender differences in behavioral undercontrol also disadvantage men with respect to alcohol outcomes (Nolen-Hoeksema and Hilt 2006). Research has consistently reported higher scores on measures of impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and disinhibition among men (Cross et al. 2011; Zuckerman and Kuhlman 2000), and these traits have been strongly associated with heavy alcohol use and alcohol-related problems (Caspi et al. 1997; Sher et al. 2005). Moreover, some studies indicated that behavioral undercontrol was exclusively or more strongly related to heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems among men compared to women (Caspi et al. 1996; Rutledge and Sher 2001b). In sum, women appear to be less likely to engage in drinking as a result of internal behavioral undercontrol and related traits, and, moreover, a strong set of external social norms is in place to discourage women and girls from alcohol misuse. Taken together, these strands of research suggest that women may be less susceptible to developing alcohol dependence through genetic and environmental mechanisms in the disinhibition pathway.
