Consistent with previous studies48, we observed that individuals who more frequently attended religious services were less likely to use cannabis in their lifetime and endorsed fewer DSM-5 CUD symptoms. Epidemiological research has identified several aspects of religiosity as important protective factors against substance use problems. For example, religious service attendance provides both interpersonal and community social support that may serve to increase resiliency and limit expression of genetic propensity to cannabis use. In addition, protective effects of religion may be mediated by the degree to which specific religions foster restrictive social norms and attitudes regarding substance use49. In this study, 12.6% of participants reported that they affiliated with a religion that had rules forbidding alcohol use; these participants were most likely to identify as Christian (broadly), followed by Protestant or Fundamentalist Protestant and Buddhist. We note, however, that, while there may be religious proscriptions regarding alcohol use, these may or may not extend to cannabis use. Further, some twin studies have shown that aspects of religiosity moderate genetic influences on alcohol use behavior19–22. For example, a Dutch twin study found
