Chalasani, 2007), which could be exacerbated with concurrent use of alcohol or other medications. In this regard, apremilast offers another potential advantage in that it is considered very safe for use in humans with relatively few side effects compared with other PDE inhibitors (Blednov et al., 2018b; Langley and Beecker, 2017). Another consideration is the mechanism for drug action in animal models – is modulation of drinking behavior due to a peripheral or central immune mechanism? Are large doses required for a candidate drug to reach the brain, and if so, can effective doses be achieved in humans?
